The Poor have been Raped An Analysis of Politicised Collective Identity in Facebook Groups against the Financial Crisis in Cyprus
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Abstract
This paper investigates the content of collective identities as constructed in Facebook groups created in protest against the haircut in 2013 in Cyprus. Given its supplementary role to offline social action, we use Facebook as a research domain and data gathering tool. Drawing on the concept of politicised collective identity we undertake a qualitative content analysis of the posts in three Facebook groups. The analysis reveals two main forms of collective identification. The first presents a rather common form of collective identity that is informed ideologically by nationalism. The second is built upon a strong anti-president rhetoric, echoing the arguments of the opposition parties. The ‘banal’ nature of such identities probably go a long way in accounting for the limited potential for collective action –unlike some of the other European crisis countries.
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Keywords
politicised collective identities, social movements, online social media, civil society, Facebook groups, Cyprus crisis, nationalism, shared grievances, adversarial attributions, thematic analysis
References
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Anduiza, E. Cristancho, C. and Sabucedo J.M. (2014) ‘Mobilization through Online Social Networks: The Political Protest of the Indignados in Spain’, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 750–764.
Azzi, A.E., Chryssochoou, X., Klandermans, B. and Simon, B. (eds) (2011) Identity and Participation in Culturally Diverse Societies. A Multidisciplinary Perspective. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Baym, N.K. (2010) Personal Connections in the Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity.
Bennett, L. (2008) ‘Changing Citizenship in the Digital Age. Civic Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth’, in Bennett, L. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, pp. 1–24.
Bennett, L. and Segerberg, A. (2012) ‘The Logic of Connective Action’, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 739–768.
Berlet, C. (1992) ‘Friendly Fascists: The Far Right Tries to Move in on The Left’, The Progressive, Vol. 56, pp. 16–20.
Bond, R.M., Fariss, C.J., Jones, J.J., Kramer, A.D.I., Marlow, C., Settle, J.E. and Fowler, J.H. (2012) ‘61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization’, Nature, Vol. 489, pp. 295–298.
Caren, N. and Gaby, S. (2011) ‘Occupy Online: Facebook and the Spread of Occupy Wall Street’, Social Science Research Network. Available at SSRN: [ssrn.com/abstract=1943168] or [dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1943168], accessed on 1 May 2015.
Castells, M. (2012) Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Christoforou, C. (2007) ‘An Old Cleavage Causes New Divisions: Parliamentary Elections in the Republic of Cyprus’, South European Society and Politics, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 111–128.
Citrin, J., McClosky, H., Shanks, J.M. and Sniderman, P. (1975) ‘Personal and Political Sources of Political Alienation’, British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1–31.
Clements, B., Nanou, K. and Verney, S. (2014) ‘“We No longer Love You, But We Don’t Want to Leave You”: The Eurozone Crisis and Popular Euroscepticism in Greece’, Journal of European Integration, Vol. 36, Iss. 3, pp. 247–265.
Condor, S.G. and Gibson, S. (2007) ‘Everybody Entitled to their Own Opinion: Ideological Dilemmas of Liberal Individualism and Active Citizenship’, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 115–140.
Earl, J., Hunt, J. and Garrel, R.K. (2014) ‘Social Movement and the ICT Revolution’, in van der Heijden (ed.), Handbook of Political Citizenship and Social Movements. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 359–383.
George, A.L. (2008) ‘Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Content Analysis’, in Franzosi, R. (ed.), Content Analysis. What is Content Analysis? Defining the Methodological Playing Field. London: Sage Benchmarks in Social Research Method, pp. 222–244.
Gerbaudo, P. (2012) Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism. London: Pluto Press.
Goertzel, T. (1994) ‘Belief in Conspiracy Theories’, Political Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 731–742.
Graumann, C.F. (1987) ‘Conspiracy: History and Social Psychology – A Synopsis’, in Graumann, C.F. and Moscovici, S. (eds), Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 245–251.
Groh, D. (1987) ‘The Temptation of Conspiracy Theory, or: Why Do Bad things Happen to Good People?’, in Graumann, CF. and Moscovici, S (eds), Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 1–38.
Hobsbawm, E. (1991) Nations and Nationalism since 1780. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Howard, P. (2011) The Digital Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Information Technology and Political Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hunt, S.A. and Benford, D.R. (2004) ‘Collective Identity, Solidarity, and Commitment’, in Snow, D.A., Soule, S.A. and Kriesi, H. (eds), The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 433–357.
Jasper, J. (2011) ‘Emotions and Social Movements: Twenty Years of Theory and Research’, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 37, pp. 285–303.
Katsourides, Y. (2013) ‘“Couch Activism” and the Individualisation of Political Demands: Political Behaviour in Contemporary Cypriot Society’, Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 51–70. Or available [on-line], pp. 87–103 at: [http://www.tandfonline. com/doi/ abs/10.1080/14782804.2013.766478], accessed on 1 May 2015.
Kavada, A. (2009) ‘E-mail lists and the Construction of an Open and Multifaceted Identity: The Case of the London 2004 European Social Forum’, available [on-line] at Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 817–839.
Klandermans, B. (1997) The Social Psychology of Protest. Oxford, UK/Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Klandermans, B., Sabucedo, J.M., Rodriguez, M. and De Weerd, M. (2002) ‘Identity Processes in Collective Action Participation: Farmers’ Identity and Farmers’ Protest in the Netherlands and Spain’, Political Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 235–251.
Klandermans, P.G. (2014) ‘Identity Politics and Politicized Identities: Identity Processes and the Dynamics of Protest’, Political Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 1–22.
Kriesi, H. (1993) Political Mobilization and Social Change. Levels of Mobilization and Mobilization Potentials in the Dutch General Public. Aldershot: Avebury.
Kroh, M. and Neiss, H. (2012) ‘On the Causal Nature of the Relationship between Internet Access and Political Engagement: Evidence from German Panel Data’, in Anduiza, E., Jensen, M. and Jorba, L. (eds), Digital Media and Political Engagement Worldwide: A Comparative Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 160–176.
Lipset, S.M. and Raab, E. (1970) The Politics of Unreason: Right Wing Extremism in America, 1790–1970. New York: Harper & Row.
Polletta, F. (2009) ‘Grievances and Identities’. Paper presented at the ‘Conference on Advancements in Social Movement Theories’, Amsterdam, 30 September–2 October.
Serricchio, F., Tsakatika, M. and Quaglia, L. (2013) ‘Euroscepticism and the Global Financial Crisis’, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 51–64.
Simon, B. and Klandermans, B. (2001) ‘Towards a Social Psychological Analysis of Politicized Collective Identity: Conceptualization, Antecedents, and Consequences’, American Psychologist, Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 319–331.
Smith, H., Spears, R. and Oyen, M. (1994) ‘‘‘People Like Us”: The Influence of Personal Deprivation and Group Membership Salience on Justice Evaluations’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 277–299.
Smith, J.A. (1995) ‘Semi-structured Interviewing and Qualitative Analysis’, in Smith, J.A., Harre, R. and Van Langehove, L. (eds), Rethinking Methods in Psychology. London: Sage, pp. 9–26.
Smith, M., Shneiderman, B., Milic-Frayling, N., Rodrigues, E.M., Barash, V., Dunne, C., Capone, T., Perer, A. and Gleave, E. (2009) ‘Analyzing Social (Media) Network Data with NodeXL’, Proceedings of Communities and Technologies (C&T), Pennsylvania, 25–27 June.
Snow, D. (2001) ‘Collective Identity and Expressive Forms’, eScholarship Respository, University of California, Irvine. Available at: [http://repositories.cdlib.org/csd/-01-07], last accessed on 10 November 2014.
Sunstein, C.R. and Vermeule, A. (2009) ‘Conspiracy Theories: Causes and Cures’, Journal of Political Philosophy, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 202–227. Available at: [http://philpapers.org/rec/SUNCTC], accessed on 1 May 2015.
Tajfel, H. (1978) Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J.C. (1986) ‘The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior’, in Worchel, S. and Austin, W.G. (eds), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall, pp. 7–24.
Theocharis, Y., Lowe, W., van Deth, J.W. and García-Albacete, G. (2015) ‘Using Twitter to Mobilize Protest Action: Online Mobilization Patterns and Action Repertoires in the Occupy Wall Street, Indignados, and Aganaktismenoi Movements’, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 202–220.
Theodossopoulos, D. (2014) ‘The Ambivalence of Anti-Austerity Indignation in Greece: Resistance, Hegemony and Complicity’, History and Anthropology, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 488–506.
Triga, V. (2011) ‘Social Protest through Facebook in the Greek Context: The Case of the I Don’t Pay Movement’, Journal of Critical Studies in Business and Society, Vol. 2, No’s. 1/2, pp. 51–73.
Valenzuela, S. (2013) ‘Unpacking the Use of Social Media for Protest Behavior: The Roles of Information, Opinion, Expression, and Activism’, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 57, No. 7, pp. 920–942.
Valenzuela, S., Arriagada, A. and Scherman, A. (2012) ‘The Social Media Basis of Youth Protest Behavior: The Case of Chile’, Journal of Communication, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 299–314.
van Stekelenburg, J. (2013) ‘Collective Identity’, in Snow, D.A., della Porta, D., Klandermans, B. and McAdam, D. (eds), The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Social and Political Movement. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Available [on-line] at: [10.1002/9780470674871.wbespm039], accessed on 1 May 2015.
van Stekelenburg, J. and Klandermans, B. (2009) ‘Social Movement Theory: Past, Present, and Prospects’, in Ellis, S. and van Kessel, I. (eds), Movers and Shakers. Social Movements in Africa. Leiden: Brill, pp. 17–43.
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T. and Spears, R. (2008) ‘Toward an Integrative Social Identity Model of Collective Action: A Quantitative Research Synthesis of Three Socio-psychological Perspectives’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 134, No. 4, pp. 504–535.
Volkan, V. (1988) The Need to Have Enemies and Allies. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. Walker, I. and Pettigrew, T.F. (1984) ‘Relative Deprivation Theory: An Overview and Conceptual Critique’, British Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 23, pp. 301–310.
Walsh, E.J. (1988) Democracy in the Shadows: Citizen Mobilization in the Wake of the Accident at Three Mile Island. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Wilson, R.E., Gosling, S.D. and Graham, L.T. (2012) ‘A Review of Facebook Research in the Social Science’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 203–220.
Anduiza, E. Cristancho, C. and Sabucedo J.M. (2014) ‘Mobilization through Online Social Networks: The Political Protest of the Indignados in Spain’, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp. 750–764.
Azzi, A.E., Chryssochoou, X., Klandermans, B. and Simon, B. (eds) (2011) Identity and Participation in Culturally Diverse Societies. A Multidisciplinary Perspective. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Baym, N.K. (2010) Personal Connections in the Digital Age. Cambridge: Polity.
Bennett, L. (2008) ‘Changing Citizenship in the Digital Age. Civic Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth’, in Bennett, L. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, pp. 1–24.
Bennett, L. and Segerberg, A. (2012) ‘The Logic of Connective Action’, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 739–768.
Berlet, C. (1992) ‘Friendly Fascists: The Far Right Tries to Move in on The Left’, The Progressive, Vol. 56, pp. 16–20.
Bond, R.M., Fariss, C.J., Jones, J.J., Kramer, A.D.I., Marlow, C., Settle, J.E. and Fowler, J.H. (2012) ‘61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political Mobilization’, Nature, Vol. 489, pp. 295–298.
Caren, N. and Gaby, S. (2011) ‘Occupy Online: Facebook and the Spread of Occupy Wall Street’, Social Science Research Network. Available at SSRN: [ssrn.com/abstract=1943168] or [dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1943168], accessed on 1 May 2015.
Castells, M. (2012) Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Christoforou, C. (2007) ‘An Old Cleavage Causes New Divisions: Parliamentary Elections in the Republic of Cyprus’, South European Society and Politics, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 111–128.
Citrin, J., McClosky, H., Shanks, J.M. and Sniderman, P. (1975) ‘Personal and Political Sources of Political Alienation’, British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1–31.
Clements, B., Nanou, K. and Verney, S. (2014) ‘“We No longer Love You, But We Don’t Want to Leave You”: The Eurozone Crisis and Popular Euroscepticism in Greece’, Journal of European Integration, Vol. 36, Iss. 3, pp. 247–265.
Condor, S.G. and Gibson, S. (2007) ‘Everybody Entitled to their Own Opinion: Ideological Dilemmas of Liberal Individualism and Active Citizenship’, Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 115–140.
Earl, J., Hunt, J. and Garrel, R.K. (2014) ‘Social Movement and the ICT Revolution’, in van der Heijden (ed.), Handbook of Political Citizenship and Social Movements. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 359–383.
George, A.L. (2008) ‘Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Content Analysis’, in Franzosi, R. (ed.), Content Analysis. What is Content Analysis? Defining the Methodological Playing Field. London: Sage Benchmarks in Social Research Method, pp. 222–244.
Gerbaudo, P. (2012) Tweets and the Streets: Social Media and Contemporary Activism. London: Pluto Press.
Goertzel, T. (1994) ‘Belief in Conspiracy Theories’, Political Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 731–742.
Graumann, C.F. (1987) ‘Conspiracy: History and Social Psychology – A Synopsis’, in Graumann, C.F. and Moscovici, S. (eds), Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 245–251.
Groh, D. (1987) ‘The Temptation of Conspiracy Theory, or: Why Do Bad things Happen to Good People?’, in Graumann, CF. and Moscovici, S (eds), Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 1–38.
Hobsbawm, E. (1991) Nations and Nationalism since 1780. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Howard, P. (2011) The Digital Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Information Technology and Political Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hunt, S.A. and Benford, D.R. (2004) ‘Collective Identity, Solidarity, and Commitment’, in Snow, D.A., Soule, S.A. and Kriesi, H. (eds), The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 433–357.
Jasper, J. (2011) ‘Emotions and Social Movements: Twenty Years of Theory and Research’, Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 37, pp. 285–303.
Katsourides, Y. (2013) ‘“Couch Activism” and the Individualisation of Political Demands: Political Behaviour in Contemporary Cypriot Society’, Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 51–70. Or available [on-line], pp. 87–103 at: [http://www.tandfonline. com/doi/ abs/10.1080/14782804.2013.766478], accessed on 1 May 2015.
Kavada, A. (2009) ‘E-mail lists and the Construction of an Open and Multifaceted Identity: The Case of the London 2004 European Social Forum’, available [on-line] at Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 817–839.
Klandermans, B. (1997) The Social Psychology of Protest. Oxford, UK/Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Klandermans, B., Sabucedo, J.M., Rodriguez, M. and De Weerd, M. (2002) ‘Identity Processes in Collective Action Participation: Farmers’ Identity and Farmers’ Protest in the Netherlands and Spain’, Political Psychology, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 235–251.
Klandermans, P.G. (2014) ‘Identity Politics and Politicized Identities: Identity Processes and the Dynamics of Protest’, Political Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 1–22.
Kriesi, H. (1993) Political Mobilization and Social Change. Levels of Mobilization and Mobilization Potentials in the Dutch General Public. Aldershot: Avebury.
Kroh, M. and Neiss, H. (2012) ‘On the Causal Nature of the Relationship between Internet Access and Political Engagement: Evidence from German Panel Data’, in Anduiza, E., Jensen, M. and Jorba, L. (eds), Digital Media and Political Engagement Worldwide: A Comparative Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 160–176.
Lipset, S.M. and Raab, E. (1970) The Politics of Unreason: Right Wing Extremism in America, 1790–1970. New York: Harper & Row.
Polletta, F. (2009) ‘Grievances and Identities’. Paper presented at the ‘Conference on Advancements in Social Movement Theories’, Amsterdam, 30 September–2 October.
Serricchio, F., Tsakatika, M. and Quaglia, L. (2013) ‘Euroscepticism and the Global Financial Crisis’, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 51–64.
Simon, B. and Klandermans, B. (2001) ‘Towards a Social Psychological Analysis of Politicized Collective Identity: Conceptualization, Antecedents, and Consequences’, American Psychologist, Vol. 56, No. 4, pp. 319–331.
Smith, H., Spears, R. and Oyen, M. (1994) ‘‘‘People Like Us”: The Influence of Personal Deprivation and Group Membership Salience on Justice Evaluations’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 277–299.
Smith, J.A. (1995) ‘Semi-structured Interviewing and Qualitative Analysis’, in Smith, J.A., Harre, R. and Van Langehove, L. (eds), Rethinking Methods in Psychology. London: Sage, pp. 9–26.
Smith, M., Shneiderman, B., Milic-Frayling, N., Rodrigues, E.M., Barash, V., Dunne, C., Capone, T., Perer, A. and Gleave, E. (2009) ‘Analyzing Social (Media) Network Data with NodeXL’, Proceedings of Communities and Technologies (C&T), Pennsylvania, 25–27 June.
Snow, D. (2001) ‘Collective Identity and Expressive Forms’, eScholarship Respository, University of California, Irvine. Available at: [http://repositories.cdlib.org/csd/-01-07], last accessed on 10 November 2014.
Sunstein, C.R. and Vermeule, A. (2009) ‘Conspiracy Theories: Causes and Cures’, Journal of Political Philosophy, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 202–227. Available at: [http://philpapers.org/rec/SUNCTC], accessed on 1 May 2015.
Tajfel, H. (1978) Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H. and Turner, J.C. (1986) ‘The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior’, in Worchel, S. and Austin, W.G. (eds), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall, pp. 7–24.
Theocharis, Y., Lowe, W., van Deth, J.W. and García-Albacete, G. (2015) ‘Using Twitter to Mobilize Protest Action: Online Mobilization Patterns and Action Repertoires in the Occupy Wall Street, Indignados, and Aganaktismenoi Movements’, Information, Communication & Society, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 202–220.
Theodossopoulos, D. (2014) ‘The Ambivalence of Anti-Austerity Indignation in Greece: Resistance, Hegemony and Complicity’, History and Anthropology, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 488–506.
Triga, V. (2011) ‘Social Protest through Facebook in the Greek Context: The Case of the I Don’t Pay Movement’, Journal of Critical Studies in Business and Society, Vol. 2, No’s. 1/2, pp. 51–73.
Valenzuela, S. (2013) ‘Unpacking the Use of Social Media for Protest Behavior: The Roles of Information, Opinion, Expression, and Activism’, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 57, No. 7, pp. 920–942.
Valenzuela, S., Arriagada, A. and Scherman, A. (2012) ‘The Social Media Basis of Youth Protest Behavior: The Case of Chile’, Journal of Communication, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 299–314.
van Stekelenburg, J. (2013) ‘Collective Identity’, in Snow, D.A., della Porta, D., Klandermans, B. and McAdam, D. (eds), The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Social and Political Movement. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Available [on-line] at: [10.1002/9780470674871.wbespm039], accessed on 1 May 2015.
van Stekelenburg, J. and Klandermans, B. (2009) ‘Social Movement Theory: Past, Present, and Prospects’, in Ellis, S. and van Kessel, I. (eds), Movers and Shakers. Social Movements in Africa. Leiden: Brill, pp. 17–43.
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T. and Spears, R. (2008) ‘Toward an Integrative Social Identity Model of Collective Action: A Quantitative Research Synthesis of Three Socio-psychological Perspectives’, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 134, No. 4, pp. 504–535.
Volkan, V. (1988) The Need to Have Enemies and Allies. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. Walker, I. and Pettigrew, T.F. (1984) ‘Relative Deprivation Theory: An Overview and Conceptual Critique’, British Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 23, pp. 301–310.
Walsh, E.J. (1988) Democracy in the Shadows: Citizen Mobilization in the Wake of the Accident at Three Mile Island. Westport: Greenwood Press.
Wilson, R.E., Gosling, S.D. and Graham, L.T. (2012) ‘A Review of Facebook Research in the Social Science’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 203–220.
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“The Poor Have Been Raped: An Analysis of Politicised Collective Identity in Facebook Groups Against the Financial Crisis in Cyprus”. 2017. Cyprus Review 27 (1): 187-216. https://cyprusreview.org/index.php/cr/article/view/64.