Framing Immigration in Online Media and Television News in Crisis-stricken Cyprus
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Abstract
Immigration is an issue of contestation across Europe. Since the 1990s, the retreat of multiculturalism has resulted in pressures exerted on immigrants to conform and integrate. The strengthening of anti-immigrant stances has intensified after the economic recession that has deteriorated standards of living for large populations and has increased the competition between social groups for public resources. Linguistic labels that evoke judgments have real consequences, as citizen attitudes depend on the labels attributed to immigrants in the public discourse. This study1 employs framing analysis of online articles and television news stories about third-country immigrants that appeared in the Cypriot media in 2013, when the consequences of the financial crisis were most strongly felt by the Cypriot population. The findings reveal the explicit discursive and sourcing mechanisms by which immigration is constructed as a problem and immigrants are ‘othered’ in the media discourse. The study concludes with a discussion of possible remedies deemed appropriate in the context of Cyprus.
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Keywords
news framing, sources, immigration, financial crisis, Cyprus
References
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Atton, C. and Wickenden, E. (2005) ‘Sourcing Routines and Representation in Alternative Journalism: A Case Study Approach’, Journalism Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 347–359.
Augostinos, M. and Quinn, C. (2003) ‘Social Categorization and Attitudinal Evaluations: Illegal Immigrants, Refuges, or Asylum Seekers?’, New Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 29–37.
Bennett, S., ter Wal, J., Lipiński, A., Fabiszak, M. and Krzyżanowski, M. (2013) ‘The Representation of Third-Country Nationals in European News Discourse’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 248–265.
Buonfino, A. (2004) ‘Between Unity and Plurality: The Politicization and Securitization of the Discourse of Immigration in Europe’, New Political Science, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 23–49.
Cecchi, S. (2011) ‘The Criminalization of Immigration in Italy: Extent of the Phenomenon and Possible Interpretations’, Italian Sociological Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 34–42.
Chauzy, J-P. and Appave, G. (2014) ‘Communicating Effectively about Migration’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 62–72.
Christophorou, C. (2010) ‘Greek Cypriot Media Development and Politics’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 235–245.
Dalton, M. (2011) ‘The EU’s Anti-Immigrant Shift’, The Wall Street Journal, 25 July.
Davies, N. (2008) Flat Earth News. London: Chatto and Windus.
Demetriou, L. (2013) ‘From Philoxenia to Xenophobia? Relations between Xenophobic Tendencies and Parental Acceptance-Rejection Childhood Experiences for Greek Cypriot
University Students’, International Journal of Social Sciences & Education, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 296–316.
Doyle, G. (2002) Media Ownership: The Economics and Politics of Convergence and Concentration in the UK and European Media. London: Sage.
Entman, R.M. (1993) ‘Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm’, Journal of Communication, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 51–58.
Ersoy, M. (2010) ‘Peace Journalism and News Coverage on the Cyprus Conflict’, Muslim World, Vol. 100, No. 1, pp. 78–99.
Finotelli, C. and Sciortino, G. (2009) ‘The Importance of Being Southern: The Making of Policies of Immigration Control in Italy’, European Journal of Migration and Law, Vol. 11, pp.
119–138.
Gans, H.J. (1979) Deciding What’s News. New York: Pantheon Books.
Gemi, E., Ulasiuk, I. and Triantafyllidou, A. (2013) ‘Migrants and Media Newsmaking Practices’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 266–281.
Grobet, A. (2014) ‘Responsible Reporting and Perceptions of Migrants in an Era of Unprecedented Mobility’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 47–61.
Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J. and Roberts, B. (1978) Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order. London: Methuen.
Hallin, C.D. and Mancini, P. (2004) Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harakis, K., Sitas, A., Sotiriades, K., Demetriou, L., Harakis, C. and Alexandrou, E. (2005) Αντικοινωνική Συμπεριφορά των Νέων της Κύπρου: Ρατσιστικές Τάσεις [Anti-social Behaviour
of Youth in Cyprus: Racist Trends]. Athens: Sakkoulas.
Haslam, N. and Holland, E. (2012) ‘Attitudes towards Asylum Seekers: The Australian Experience’, in Bretherton, D. and Balvin, N. (eds), Peace Psychology in Australia. New York: Springer, pp. 107–120.
Heller, C. (2014) ‘Perception Management: Deterring Potential Migrants through Information Campaigns’, Global Media and Communication, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 303–318.
Hooper, J. (2014) ‘Now You See Them, Now You Don’t: Italy’s Visible and Invisible Immigrants’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 183–190.
Ihlen, Ø. and Thorbjørnsrud, K. (2014) ‘Making News and Influencing Decisions: Three Threshold Cases Concerning Forced Return of Immigrants’, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 139–152.
Jacomella, G. (2010) Media and Migrations: Press Narrative and Country Politics in Three European Countries. Reuters Institute Fellowship Paper: University of Oxford. Available at:
[http://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/publication/media-and-migrations], accessed on 16 April 2015.
Jordan, B., Stråth, B. and Triandafyllidou, A. (2003) ‘Contextualising Immigration Policy Implementation in Europe’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.
195–224.
Lakoff, G. and Ferguson, S. (2006) The Framing of Immigration. The Rockridge Institute. Available at: [http://www.cognitivepolicyworks.com/resource-center/rethinking-immigra
tion/the-framing-of-immigration/], accessed on 13 March 2015.
Larsen, K.S., Krumov, K., Le, H.V., Ommundsen, R. and van der Veer, K. (2009) ‘Threat Perception and Attitudes Toward Documented and Undocumented Immigrants in the United States: Framing the Debate and Conflict Resolution’, European Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 115–134.
Lecheler, S. and de Vreese, C. (2013) ‘What a Difference a Day Makes? The Effects of Repetitive and Competitive News Framing Over Time’, Communication Research, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 147–175.
Magnani, N. (2011) ‘Immigration Control in Italian Political Elite Debates: Changing Policy Frames in Italy, 1980s–2000s’, Ethnicities, Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 643–664.
Mai, N. (2005) ‘The Albanian Diaspora-in-the-Making: Media, Migration and Social Exclusion’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 543–561.
Mainwaring, C. (2008) ‘On the Edge of Exclusion: The Changing Nature of Migration in Cyprus and Malta’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 19–49.
Manning, P. (2001) News and News Sources. London: Sage.
McQuail, D. (1992) Media Performance: Mass Communication and the Public Interest. London: Sage.
Phillips, A. (2011) ‘Journalists as Unwilling “Sources”: Transparency and the New Ethics of Journalism’, in Franklin, B. and Carlson, M. (eds), Journalists, Sources, and Credibility. New
York: Routledge, pp. 49–60.
Philo, G. (2013) ‘Our Hysterical Media Helped Create the Immigrant “go home” Van’. The Guardian, 8 August. Available at: [http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/
08/media-immigrant-go-home-van], accessed on 13 March 2015.
Powers, A. and Fico, F. (1994) ‘Influences on Use of Sources at Large U.S. Newspapers’, Newspaper Research Journal, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 87–97.
Reich, Z. (2009) Sourcing the News: Key Issues in Journalism: An Innovative Study of the Israeli Press. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Riffe, D., Lacy, S. and Fico, F. (2005) Analyzing Media Messages: Using Quantitative Content Analysis in Research. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schmuck, D. and Matthes, J. (2014) ‘How Anti-immigrant Right-wing Populist Advertisements Affect Young Voters: Symbolic Threats, Economic Threats and the Moderating Role of
Education’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, [Online]: DOI:10.1080/1369183X.2014. 981513.
Sophocleous, A. (2008) The Cypriot Mass Media. Nicosia: Nikoklis [in Greek].
Spoonley, P., and Butcher, A. (2009) ‘Reporting Superdiversity: The Mass Media and Immigration in New Zealand, Journal of Intercultural Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 355–372.
Spyrou, S. (2004) Greek Cypriot Children’s Knowledge about, Perceptions of, and Attitudes towards Foreigners in Cyprus. Nicosia: United Nations Development Programme.
Staglianò, R. (2014) ‘This is not a Country for Immigrants: Journalists and Political Discourse in Italy’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 191–202.
ter Wal, J. (1996) ‘The Social Representation of Immigrants: The Pantanella Issue in the Pages of “La Repubblica”’, New Community, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 39–66.
Triandafyllidou, A. (2000) ‘Racists? Us? Are You Joking? The Discourse of Social Exclusion of Immigrants in Greece and Italy’, in King, R., Lazaridis, G. and Tsardanidis, C. (eds), Eldorado or Fortress? Migration in Southern Europe. London: Macmillan, pp. 186–205.
Triandafyllidou, A. (2013) ‘Migrants and the Media in the Twenty-First Century’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 240–247.
Trimikliniotis, N. (1999) ‘Racism and New Migration to Cyprus: The Racialisation of Migrant Workers’, in Anthias, F. and Lazarides, G. (eds), Into the Margins: Exclusion and Migration in
Southern Europe. Avebury: Ashgate, pp. 139–179.
Trimikliniotis, N. (2013) ‘Migration and Freedom of Movement of Workers: EU Law, Crisis and the Cypriot States of Exception’, Laws, Vol. 2, pp. 440–468.
Trimikliniotis, N. and Demetriou, C. (2006) ‘Immigration to Cyprus’, in Triandafyllidou, A. and Gropas, P. (eds), European Immigration: A Sourcebook. Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 45–58.
Trimikliniotis, N. and Demetriou, C. (2012) The Interaction between Racist Discourse and the Rise in Racial Violence in Cyprus: The Far Right Attack against a Multicultural Rainbow Festival. Florence ACCEPTPLURALISM; 2012/08; 4. National Case Studies – Political Life; Final Country Reports.
van Gorp, B. (2005) ‘Where is the Frame? Victims and Intruders in the Belgian Press Coverage of the Asylum Issue’, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 484–507.
van Gorp, B. (2010) ‘Strategies to Take Subjectivity Out of Framing Analysis’, in D’Angelo, P. and Kuypers, J.A. (eds), Doing News Framing Analysis: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives. New York: Routledge, pp. 84–109.
Wilson, R. and Hainsworth, P. (2012) Far-Right Parties and Discourse in Europe: A Challenge for Our Times. Brussels: European Network Against Racism (ENAR). Available at: [http://cms.horus.be/files/99935/MediaArchive/publications/20060_Publication_Far_right_EN_LR.pdf ], accessed on 13 March 2015.
Zembylas, M., Michaelidou, A. and Afantintou-Lambrianou, T. (2010) ‘Greek Cypriot Adolescent Attitudes Toward Immigrants and “Enemy-Others” in The Context of an Ethnic
Conflict’, Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 5–39.
Atton, C. and Wickenden, E. (2005) ‘Sourcing Routines and Representation in Alternative Journalism: A Case Study Approach’, Journalism Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 347–359.
Augostinos, M. and Quinn, C. (2003) ‘Social Categorization and Attitudinal Evaluations: Illegal Immigrants, Refuges, or Asylum Seekers?’, New Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 2, pp. 29–37.
Bennett, S., ter Wal, J., Lipiński, A., Fabiszak, M. and Krzyżanowski, M. (2013) ‘The Representation of Third-Country Nationals in European News Discourse’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 248–265.
Buonfino, A. (2004) ‘Between Unity and Plurality: The Politicization and Securitization of the Discourse of Immigration in Europe’, New Political Science, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 23–49.
Cecchi, S. (2011) ‘The Criminalization of Immigration in Italy: Extent of the Phenomenon and Possible Interpretations’, Italian Sociological Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 34–42.
Chauzy, J-P. and Appave, G. (2014) ‘Communicating Effectively about Migration’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 62–72.
Christophorou, C. (2010) ‘Greek Cypriot Media Development and Politics’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 235–245.
Dalton, M. (2011) ‘The EU’s Anti-Immigrant Shift’, The Wall Street Journal, 25 July.
Davies, N. (2008) Flat Earth News. London: Chatto and Windus.
Demetriou, L. (2013) ‘From Philoxenia to Xenophobia? Relations between Xenophobic Tendencies and Parental Acceptance-Rejection Childhood Experiences for Greek Cypriot
University Students’, International Journal of Social Sciences & Education, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 296–316.
Doyle, G. (2002) Media Ownership: The Economics and Politics of Convergence and Concentration in the UK and European Media. London: Sage.
Entman, R.M. (1993) ‘Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm’, Journal of Communication, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 51–58.
Ersoy, M. (2010) ‘Peace Journalism and News Coverage on the Cyprus Conflict’, Muslim World, Vol. 100, No. 1, pp. 78–99.
Finotelli, C. and Sciortino, G. (2009) ‘The Importance of Being Southern: The Making of Policies of Immigration Control in Italy’, European Journal of Migration and Law, Vol. 11, pp.
119–138.
Gans, H.J. (1979) Deciding What’s News. New York: Pantheon Books.
Gemi, E., Ulasiuk, I. and Triantafyllidou, A. (2013) ‘Migrants and Media Newsmaking Practices’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 266–281.
Grobet, A. (2014) ‘Responsible Reporting and Perceptions of Migrants in an Era of Unprecedented Mobility’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 47–61.
Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J. and Roberts, B. (1978) Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order. London: Methuen.
Hallin, C.D. and Mancini, P. (2004) Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harakis, K., Sitas, A., Sotiriades, K., Demetriou, L., Harakis, C. and Alexandrou, E. (2005) Αντικοινωνική Συμπεριφορά των Νέων της Κύπρου: Ρατσιστικές Τάσεις [Anti-social Behaviour
of Youth in Cyprus: Racist Trends]. Athens: Sakkoulas.
Haslam, N. and Holland, E. (2012) ‘Attitudes towards Asylum Seekers: The Australian Experience’, in Bretherton, D. and Balvin, N. (eds), Peace Psychology in Australia. New York: Springer, pp. 107–120.
Heller, C. (2014) ‘Perception Management: Deterring Potential Migrants through Information Campaigns’, Global Media and Communication, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 303–318.
Hooper, J. (2014) ‘Now You See Them, Now You Don’t: Italy’s Visible and Invisible Immigrants’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 183–190.
Ihlen, Ø. and Thorbjørnsrud, K. (2014) ‘Making News and Influencing Decisions: Three Threshold Cases Concerning Forced Return of Immigrants’, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 139–152.
Jacomella, G. (2010) Media and Migrations: Press Narrative and Country Politics in Three European Countries. Reuters Institute Fellowship Paper: University of Oxford. Available at:
[http://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/publication/media-and-migrations], accessed on 16 April 2015.
Jordan, B., Stråth, B. and Triandafyllidou, A. (2003) ‘Contextualising Immigration Policy Implementation in Europe’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.
195–224.
Lakoff, G. and Ferguson, S. (2006) The Framing of Immigration. The Rockridge Institute. Available at: [http://www.cognitivepolicyworks.com/resource-center/rethinking-immigra
tion/the-framing-of-immigration/], accessed on 13 March 2015.
Larsen, K.S., Krumov, K., Le, H.V., Ommundsen, R. and van der Veer, K. (2009) ‘Threat Perception and Attitudes Toward Documented and Undocumented Immigrants in the United States: Framing the Debate and Conflict Resolution’, European Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 115–134.
Lecheler, S. and de Vreese, C. (2013) ‘What a Difference a Day Makes? The Effects of Repetitive and Competitive News Framing Over Time’, Communication Research, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 147–175.
Magnani, N. (2011) ‘Immigration Control in Italian Political Elite Debates: Changing Policy Frames in Italy, 1980s–2000s’, Ethnicities, Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 643–664.
Mai, N. (2005) ‘The Albanian Diaspora-in-the-Making: Media, Migration and Social Exclusion’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 543–561.
Mainwaring, C. (2008) ‘On the Edge of Exclusion: The Changing Nature of Migration in Cyprus and Malta’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 19–49.
Manning, P. (2001) News and News Sources. London: Sage.
McQuail, D. (1992) Media Performance: Mass Communication and the Public Interest. London: Sage.
Phillips, A. (2011) ‘Journalists as Unwilling “Sources”: Transparency and the New Ethics of Journalism’, in Franklin, B. and Carlson, M. (eds), Journalists, Sources, and Credibility. New
York: Routledge, pp. 49–60.
Philo, G. (2013) ‘Our Hysterical Media Helped Create the Immigrant “go home” Van’. The Guardian, 8 August. Available at: [http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/
08/media-immigrant-go-home-van], accessed on 13 March 2015.
Powers, A. and Fico, F. (1994) ‘Influences on Use of Sources at Large U.S. Newspapers’, Newspaper Research Journal, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 87–97.
Reich, Z. (2009) Sourcing the News: Key Issues in Journalism: An Innovative Study of the Israeli Press. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Riffe, D., Lacy, S. and Fico, F. (2005) Analyzing Media Messages: Using Quantitative Content Analysis in Research. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schmuck, D. and Matthes, J. (2014) ‘How Anti-immigrant Right-wing Populist Advertisements Affect Young Voters: Symbolic Threats, Economic Threats and the Moderating Role of
Education’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, [Online]: DOI:10.1080/1369183X.2014. 981513.
Sophocleous, A. (2008) The Cypriot Mass Media. Nicosia: Nikoklis [in Greek].
Spoonley, P., and Butcher, A. (2009) ‘Reporting Superdiversity: The Mass Media and Immigration in New Zealand, Journal of Intercultural Studies, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 355–372.
Spyrou, S. (2004) Greek Cypriot Children’s Knowledge about, Perceptions of, and Attitudes towards Foreigners in Cyprus. Nicosia: United Nations Development Programme.
Staglianò, R. (2014) ‘This is not a Country for Immigrants: Journalists and Political Discourse in Italy’, in Dell’Orto, G. and Birchfield, V. (eds), Reporting at the Southern Borders: Journalism and Public Debates on Immigration in the US and the EU. New York: Routledge, pp. 191–202.
ter Wal, J. (1996) ‘The Social Representation of Immigrants: The Pantanella Issue in the Pages of “La Repubblica”’, New Community, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 39–66.
Triandafyllidou, A. (2000) ‘Racists? Us? Are You Joking? The Discourse of Social Exclusion of Immigrants in Greece and Italy’, in King, R., Lazaridis, G. and Tsardanidis, C. (eds), Eldorado or Fortress? Migration in Southern Europe. London: Macmillan, pp. 186–205.
Triandafyllidou, A. (2013) ‘Migrants and the Media in the Twenty-First Century’, Journalism Practice, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 240–247.
Trimikliniotis, N. (1999) ‘Racism and New Migration to Cyprus: The Racialisation of Migrant Workers’, in Anthias, F. and Lazarides, G. (eds), Into the Margins: Exclusion and Migration in
Southern Europe. Avebury: Ashgate, pp. 139–179.
Trimikliniotis, N. (2013) ‘Migration and Freedom of Movement of Workers: EU Law, Crisis and the Cypriot States of Exception’, Laws, Vol. 2, pp. 440–468.
Trimikliniotis, N. and Demetriou, C. (2006) ‘Immigration to Cyprus’, in Triandafyllidou, A. and Gropas, P. (eds), European Immigration: A Sourcebook. Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 45–58.
Trimikliniotis, N. and Demetriou, C. (2012) The Interaction between Racist Discourse and the Rise in Racial Violence in Cyprus: The Far Right Attack against a Multicultural Rainbow Festival. Florence ACCEPTPLURALISM; 2012/08; 4. National Case Studies – Political Life; Final Country Reports.
van Gorp, B. (2005) ‘Where is the Frame? Victims and Intruders in the Belgian Press Coverage of the Asylum Issue’, European Journal of Communication, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 484–507.
van Gorp, B. (2010) ‘Strategies to Take Subjectivity Out of Framing Analysis’, in D’Angelo, P. and Kuypers, J.A. (eds), Doing News Framing Analysis: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives. New York: Routledge, pp. 84–109.
Wilson, R. and Hainsworth, P. (2012) Far-Right Parties and Discourse in Europe: A Challenge for Our Times. Brussels: European Network Against Racism (ENAR). Available at: [http://cms.horus.be/files/99935/MediaArchive/publications/20060_Publication_Far_right_EN_LR.pdf ], accessed on 13 March 2015.
Zembylas, M., Michaelidou, A. and Afantintou-Lambrianou, T. (2010) ‘Greek Cypriot Adolescent Attitudes Toward Immigrants and “Enemy-Others” in The Context of an Ethnic
Conflict’, Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 5–39.
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“Framing Immigration in Online Media and Television News in Crisis-Stricken Cyprus”. 2017. Cyprus Review 27 (1): 155-85. https://cyprusreview.org/index.php/cr/article/view/63.