Games of (de)Legitimization and Images of Collective Subjects at the Management of a Financial Crisis: The Cyprus Memorandum in the German Political Discourse
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Abstract
The Cypriot financial crisis of February 2013 opened a new chapter in the island’s history and changed the perception of the Cyprus Problem. In this sense, the financial crisis was perceived as a continuation of the Greek crisis, which was at its peak, and drew all the negative frames, aspects and stereotypes from it. Germany played a key role in image formation of the island through the attribution of blame in German political discourse. For almost two months, German political parties debated the issue, forming an image of the country through their criticism, rhetoric and blame game. From being a victim of Turkish imperialism, Cyprus became an abuser of the eurozone. The construction of a new image for Cyprus in German political discourse was achieved through the use of contradicting dipoles, image restoration strategies and blame game. The induction of these means of
strategic communication in the political discourse marked the parties’ campaign mode in the intra-national and the international political levels.
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Keywords
Cyprus financial crisis, Germany, strategic communication, image restoration, nation image, crisis management, blame game
References
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Benoit, W.L. (2007) Communication in Political Campaigns. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.
Boin, A., Hart, P., Stern, E., and Sundelius, B. (2005) The Politics of Crisis Management: Public Leadership under Pressure, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brändström, A., Kuipers, S., Daléus, P. (2005) ‘The Politics of Blame Management in Scandinavia after the Tsunami Disaster’. Paper presented at the Conference Blame Avoidance and Blame Management, Grenada, Spain, 14-19 April.
Brian, W. A. (2005) Sins of the Parents, The Politics of National Apologies in the United States. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Brody, R.A. and Shapiro, C.R. (1989) ‘Policy Failure and Public Support: The Iran-Contra Affair and Public Assessment of President Reagan’. Political Behavior, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 353–369.
Boyd, D.P. (2011) ‘Art and Artifice in Public Apologies’. Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 104, No. 3, pp. 299-309.
Brown, K.G. and Geddes, R. (2006) ‘Image Repair: Research, Consensus, and Strategies: A Study of the University College of Cape Breton’. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, Vol. 15, Nos. 1-2, pp. 69-85.
Burton, M.J. and Shea, D.M. (2003) Campaign Mode; Strategic Vision in Congressional Elections. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
Capelos, T. and Wurzer, J. (2009) ‘United Front: Blame Management and Scandal Response Tactics of the United Nations’. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management. Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 75–94.
Chrisitian Democrat Union (CDU) Press Release, Zypern – Hilfe Solidaritaet fuer Europa [Cyprus – Solidarity for Europe], 18 March 2013.
Christian Democrat Union (CDU)/ Christian Social Union (CSU) Press Release, Zypern – Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe [Cyprus – Solidatrity for Europe], 26 March 2013.
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Gold, E.R. (1978) ‘Political Apologia: The Ritual of Self‐Defense’. Communication Monographs, Vol. 45, No. 4, pp. 306–316.
Gillhaus, B. (2000) Case Study Research Methodology. London: Continuum.
Harrell, J., Ware, B.L. and Linkugel, W. A. (1975) ‘Failure of Apology in American Politics: Nixon on Watergate’. Speech Monographs, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 245–261.
Hearit, K. M. (2006) Crisis Management by Apology, Corporate Response to Allegations of Wrongdoing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Hogan, T.A., (2011) A Speech Of Defense: Obama's Apologia For Himself And The Reverend Jeremiah Wright. Robert E. Kennedy Library.
Iordanidou, S. and Samaras, A.N. (2014) ‘Financial Crisis in the Cyprus Republic’. Javnost – The Public, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 63–76.
Iyengar, S. (1991) Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jennings, W.J. (2005) ‘Blame Attribution and Blame Management: Iraq in Comparative Perspective’. Paper presented at the Conference: Blame Management and Blame Avoidance, Granada, Spain, 14-19 April.
Johnson-Cartee, K.S. and Copeland, G.A. (2004) Strategic Political Communication. Lanham: Rowland and Littlefield.
Kampf, Z. (2008) ‘Public (non-) apologies: The discourse of minimizing responsibility’. Journal of Pragmatics, Vol 41, No. 11, pp. 2257–2270.
Kampf, Z. and Löwenheim, N. (2012) ‘Rituals of Apology in the Global Arena’. Security Dialogue, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 43–60.
Kenan & Hood C., (2005). Blame Avoidance with Adjectives? Motivation, Opportunity, activity, outcome. Paper presented at the International Conference: Blame Game and
Blame Avoidance., Granada, Spain, 14-20 April.
Kendall, R.P. (1999) ‘Tactical Apologia: The American Nursing Association and Assisted Suicide’. Southern Communication Journal, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 143-154.
King, R.L. (1985) ‘Transforming Scandal into Tragedy: A Rhetoric of Political Apology’. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 289–301.
Knobloch-Westerwick, S. and Taylor, L., (2008). ‘The Blame Game: Elements of Causal Attribution and its Impact on Siding with Agents in the News’. Communication Research,
Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 723–744.
Krippendorf, K. (2004) Conflict Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. London: SAGE Publications.
Lazare, A. (2004) On Apology. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Len-Ríos, María E. (2010) ‘Image Repair Strategies, Local News Portrayals and Crisis Stage: A Case Study of Duke University's Lacrosse Team Crisis’. International Journal of Strategic Communication, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 267–287.
Lind, J. (2008). Sorry States, Apologies in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Mathias, T. (2011) ‘Can Political Apologies Be Sincere?’. Paper presented at ECPR General Conference, Reykjavik, Iceland, August 25-27.
McCroskey, J.C. (2006) An Introduction to Rhetorical Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
McClearey, K.E. (1983) ‘Audience effects of apologia’. Communication Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 1, 12-20.
MacMillan K. & Edwards D. (1999) ‘Who killed the Princes Description and Blame in the British Press’. Discourse Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 151-174.
Mueller, J. (2003): ‘American Public Opinion and Military Intervention abroad’. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, August 28-31, 2003.
Mueller, J.E. (1970) ‘Presidential Popularity from Truman to Johnson’. American Political Science Review, Vol. 64, pp.18–34.
Negash, G. (2006) Apologia Politica: States and their Apology by Proxy. Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books.
Osborne, H. and Moulds, J. (2013, March 25) ‘Cyprus Bailout Deal at a Glance’. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2013/mar/25/cyprus-bailout-dealat-a-glance.
Oliner, S. (2008) Altruism, Intergroup Apology, Forgiveness and Reconciliation. St Paul, MN: Paragon House.
Phillips, K.R. (1999) ‘Tactical apologia: The American nursing association and assisted suicide’. Southern Communication Journal, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 143–154.
Ryan, H. (1982) ‘Kategoria and apologia: On their rhetorical criticism as a speech set’. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 254–261.
Samaras, A. N. (2011) ‘Frames and Framing in International Relations’. Defensor Pacis, Vol. 11, pp. 71-96.
Schwarz, A. (2008) ‘Covariation-Based Causal Attributions during Organizational Crises: Suggestions for Extending Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)’.
International Journal of Strategic Communication, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 31- 53.
Scott, R.I. (2004) ‘Politics, advertising, and excuses: why do we lie?’, ETC: A Review of General Semantics, Vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 187-195.
Smith, N.I. (2008) I Was Wrong: The Meaning of Apologies, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sulitzeanu-Kenan, R., and Hood, C. (2005, April) ‘Blame avoidance with adjectives? Motivation, opportunity, activity and outcome’. Paper presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions, Blame Avoidance and Blame Management Workshop, 14-20 April, Granada, Spain.
Takaku, S., Weiner, B., Ohbuchi, K. (2001) ‘A Cross-Cultural Examination of the Effects of Apology and Perspective Taking on Forgiveness’. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, Vol. 20, pp. 144–166.
Trent, J.S., and Friedenberg, R.V. (1995) Political Campaign Communication. New York: Praeger.
Takas, E. and Samaras, A.N. (2016) ‘Legitimation and de-legitimation processes of Memorandum II in Greece: Facets of strategic framing in Greek parliamentary discourse’. French Journal For Media Research, Vol. 5, pp. 1–22.
Ware, B.L. and Linkugel, W.A. (1973) ‘They spoke in defense of themselves: On the generic criticism of apologia’. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 273–283.
Van Evera, S. (1997) Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Zenios, S.A. (2013) ‘The Cyprus Debt: Perfect Crisis and a Way Forward’, Cyprus Economic Policy Review Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 3–45.
Benoit, W.L. (1995) Accounts, Excuses and Apologies: A Theory of Image Restoration Strategies. New York, NY: State University of New York Press.
Benoit, W.L. (2007) Communication in Political Campaigns. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.
Boin, A., Hart, P., Stern, E., and Sundelius, B. (2005) The Politics of Crisis Management: Public Leadership under Pressure, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brändström, A., Kuipers, S., Daléus, P. (2005) ‘The Politics of Blame Management in Scandinavia after the Tsunami Disaster’. Paper presented at the Conference Blame Avoidance and Blame Management, Grenada, Spain, 14-19 April.
Brian, W. A. (2005) Sins of the Parents, The Politics of National Apologies in the United States. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Brody, R.A. and Shapiro, C.R. (1989) ‘Policy Failure and Public Support: The Iran-Contra Affair and Public Assessment of President Reagan’. Political Behavior, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 353–369.
Boyd, D.P. (2011) ‘Art and Artifice in Public Apologies’. Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 104, No. 3, pp. 299-309.
Brown, K.G. and Geddes, R. (2006) ‘Image Repair: Research, Consensus, and Strategies: A Study of the University College of Cape Breton’. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, Vol. 15, Nos. 1-2, pp. 69-85.
Burton, M.J. and Shea, D.M. (2003) Campaign Mode; Strategic Vision in Congressional Elections. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
Capelos, T. and Wurzer, J. (2009) ‘United Front: Blame Management and Scandal Response Tactics of the United Nations’. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management. Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 75–94.
Chrisitian Democrat Union (CDU) Press Release, Zypern – Hilfe Solidaritaet fuer Europa [Cyprus – Solidarity for Europe], 18 March 2013.
Christian Democrat Union (CDU)/ Christian Social Union (CSU) Press Release, Zypern – Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe [Cyprus – Solidatrity for Europe], 26 March 2013.
Coombs, W.T., Frandsen, F., Holladay, S. J., Johansen, W. (2010) ’Why a Concern for Apologia and Crisis Communication?’. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 337–349.
Dettmer, M. and Reiermann, C., (2012a, November 5) ‘EU Aid for Cyprus a Political Minefield for Merkel’ and Speigel Online. Available at: http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/german-intelligence-report-warns-cyprus-not-combating-money-laundering-a-865451.
Dettmer, M. and Reiermann, C., (2012b, November 5) ‘Aid to Cyprus Could Benefit Russian Oligarchs’, and Speigel Online. Available at: http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/german-spy-agency-sayscyprus-bailout-would-help-russian-oligarchs-a-865291.html.
Entman, R.M. (2004) Projections of Power, Framing News, Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy. Chicago: University Chicago Press.
Free Democrat Party (FDP) press release, (2013, Febrauary 25) Zypern: Reformbereitschaft zeigen’ [Cyprus: Show commitment to reform].
Free Democrat Party (FDP) press release, (20, March 2013) Vereinbarung nicht aufweichen [Agreement].
Gold, E.R. (1978) ‘Political Apologia: The Ritual of Self‐Defense’. Communication Monographs, Vol. 45, No. 4, pp. 306–316.
Gillhaus, B. (2000) Case Study Research Methodology. London: Continuum.
Harrell, J., Ware, B.L. and Linkugel, W. A. (1975) ‘Failure of Apology in American Politics: Nixon on Watergate’. Speech Monographs, Vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 245–261.
Hearit, K. M. (2006) Crisis Management by Apology, Corporate Response to Allegations of Wrongdoing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Hogan, T.A., (2011) A Speech Of Defense: Obama's Apologia For Himself And The Reverend Jeremiah Wright. Robert E. Kennedy Library.
Iordanidou, S. and Samaras, A.N. (2014) ‘Financial Crisis in the Cyprus Republic’. Javnost – The Public, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 63–76.
Iyengar, S. (1991) Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Jennings, W.J. (2005) ‘Blame Attribution and Blame Management: Iraq in Comparative Perspective’. Paper presented at the Conference: Blame Management and Blame Avoidance, Granada, Spain, 14-19 April.
Johnson-Cartee, K.S. and Copeland, G.A. (2004) Strategic Political Communication. Lanham: Rowland and Littlefield.
Kampf, Z. (2008) ‘Public (non-) apologies: The discourse of minimizing responsibility’. Journal of Pragmatics, Vol 41, No. 11, pp. 2257–2270.
Kampf, Z. and Löwenheim, N. (2012) ‘Rituals of Apology in the Global Arena’. Security Dialogue, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 43–60.
Kenan & Hood C., (2005). Blame Avoidance with Adjectives? Motivation, Opportunity, activity, outcome. Paper presented at the International Conference: Blame Game and
Blame Avoidance., Granada, Spain, 14-20 April.
Kendall, R.P. (1999) ‘Tactical Apologia: The American Nursing Association and Assisted Suicide’. Southern Communication Journal, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 143-154.
King, R.L. (1985) ‘Transforming Scandal into Tragedy: A Rhetoric of Political Apology’. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 289–301.
Knobloch-Westerwick, S. and Taylor, L., (2008). ‘The Blame Game: Elements of Causal Attribution and its Impact on Siding with Agents in the News’. Communication Research,
Vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 723–744.
Krippendorf, K. (2004) Conflict Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. London: SAGE Publications.
Lazare, A. (2004) On Apology. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Len-Ríos, María E. (2010) ‘Image Repair Strategies, Local News Portrayals and Crisis Stage: A Case Study of Duke University's Lacrosse Team Crisis’. International Journal of Strategic Communication, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 267–287.
Lind, J. (2008). Sorry States, Apologies in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Mathias, T. (2011) ‘Can Political Apologies Be Sincere?’. Paper presented at ECPR General Conference, Reykjavik, Iceland, August 25-27.
McCroskey, J.C. (2006) An Introduction to Rhetorical Communication. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
McClearey, K.E. (1983) ‘Audience effects of apologia’. Communication Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 1, 12-20.
MacMillan K. & Edwards D. (1999) ‘Who killed the Princes Description and Blame in the British Press’. Discourse Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 151-174.
Mueller, J. (2003): ‘American Public Opinion and Military Intervention abroad’. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, August 28-31, 2003.
Mueller, J.E. (1970) ‘Presidential Popularity from Truman to Johnson’. American Political Science Review, Vol. 64, pp.18–34.
Negash, G. (2006) Apologia Politica: States and their Apology by Proxy. Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books.
Osborne, H. and Moulds, J. (2013, March 25) ‘Cyprus Bailout Deal at a Glance’. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2013/mar/25/cyprus-bailout-dealat-a-glance.
Oliner, S. (2008) Altruism, Intergroup Apology, Forgiveness and Reconciliation. St Paul, MN: Paragon House.
Phillips, K.R. (1999) ‘Tactical apologia: The American nursing association and assisted suicide’. Southern Communication Journal, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 143–154.
Ryan, H. (1982) ‘Kategoria and apologia: On their rhetorical criticism as a speech set’. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 68, No. 3, pp. 254–261.
Samaras, A. N. (2011) ‘Frames and Framing in International Relations’. Defensor Pacis, Vol. 11, pp. 71-96.
Schwarz, A. (2008) ‘Covariation-Based Causal Attributions during Organizational Crises: Suggestions for Extending Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT)’.
International Journal of Strategic Communication, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 31- 53.
Scott, R.I. (2004) ‘Politics, advertising, and excuses: why do we lie?’, ETC: A Review of General Semantics, Vol. 61, No. 2, pp. 187-195.
Smith, N.I. (2008) I Was Wrong: The Meaning of Apologies, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Sulitzeanu-Kenan, R., and Hood, C. (2005, April) ‘Blame avoidance with adjectives? Motivation, opportunity, activity and outcome’. Paper presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions, Blame Avoidance and Blame Management Workshop, 14-20 April, Granada, Spain.
Takaku, S., Weiner, B., Ohbuchi, K. (2001) ‘A Cross-Cultural Examination of the Effects of Apology and Perspective Taking on Forgiveness’. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, Vol. 20, pp. 144–166.
Trent, J.S., and Friedenberg, R.V. (1995) Political Campaign Communication. New York: Praeger.
Takas, E. and Samaras, A.N. (2016) ‘Legitimation and de-legitimation processes of Memorandum II in Greece: Facets of strategic framing in Greek parliamentary discourse’. French Journal For Media Research, Vol. 5, pp. 1–22.
Ware, B.L. and Linkugel, W.A. (1973) ‘They spoke in defense of themselves: On the generic criticism of apologia’. Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 273–283.
Van Evera, S. (1997) Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Zenios, S.A. (2013) ‘The Cyprus Debt: Perfect Crisis and a Way Forward’, Cyprus Economic Policy Review Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 3–45.
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“Games of (de)Legitimization and Images of Collective Subjects at the Management of a Financial Crisis: The Cyprus Memorandum in the German Political Discourse”. 2018. Cyprus Review 29 (1): 19-41. https://cyprusreview.org/index.php/cr/article/view/378.