Conspiracy Theories and Cypriot History The Comfort of Commonly Perceived Enemies
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Abstract
A distinct Cypriot history as opposed to a Greek and Turkish national narrative did not appear before the catastrophe of 1974. Even after that, no consensus on the main parameters of recent Cypriot history emerged. One unifying element, however, did exist to which most Cypriots from different communities and political factions adhere, and this is the widespread conviction that Cyprus has fallen victim to foreign powers. According to this school of thought no violence would have occurred if not for the poisonous influence of Anglo-American conspiracy. Far from being confined to popular discourse, this theory exists and repeats itself in academic circles and ‘scholarly’ research. It seems to provide a comfortable – yet dangerous – exit from considering each other’s responsibilities for various aspects of the ‘Cyprus problem’. In order to put major conspiracy theories to the test, some aspects of British colonial policy in Cyprus and British-American involvement in the Cyprus Crisis of 1974 will be examined here. The intention is to exemplify the thorny passage to a future scholarship-based rewriting of a common Cypriot history.
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Keywords
conspiracy theories, diplomatic history, British colonial administration, American diplomacy, 1974 crisis in Cyprus
References
Robins, George Herbert: Reports as Commissioner of Police, Cyprus, 1955-1956, MSS. Medit. s. 9, Progress Report on Development and build up of the Cyprus Police Force, Commissioner and Deputy Governor, 9 December 1955.
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Progress Report, Development and Expansion of the Cyprus Police Force, Chief of Staff, Office of Commissioner of Police Cyprus and Governor, 13 March 1956, MSS. Medit. s. 9.
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CO 69/65 Cyprus Administration Reports 1958 Part 2; Annual Report on the Cyprus Police Force for the Year 1958 by John E.S. Brown Esq, OBE, Chief Constable of Cyprus. Nicosia 1959.
CO 69/68 Administration Reports 1960 Part 1; Annual Report on the Cyprus Gendarmerie Force for the Period 16 August 1960-31 December 1960 by Ahmed Niazi Esq, Commander, Cyprus Gendarmerie.
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WO 386/21 Annex C, Operation ABLAUT.
WO 386/21 Annex D, Operation PLATYPUS.
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Ford Library, Ann Arbor, MD Boyatt to Kissinger, Briefing Memorandum. Critique of the Substantial Handling of the Cyprus Crisis, 9 August 1974. Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Cyprus (1), Box 2.
Telecon, Ford/Kissinger, 3:40 p.m., 10 August 1974, Office of the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, Kissinger-Scowcroft Temporary Parallel File, Box A1.
STATE 175382 Kissinger to Ankara, Z110200, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams from SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
ANKARA 6412 Macomber to Kissinger, 110924Z, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
ANKARA 6414 Macomber to Kissinger, 111808Z, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
STATE 175402 Kissinger to Macomber, 111727Z, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams from SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, 9:00 a.m., 13 August 1974; National Security Adviser, Memoranda of Conversations, 1973-1977, 8 May 1974, Box 4.
FOIA, Electronic Reading Room, Kissinger Transcripts Telcon Cyrus Vance/Kissinger, 7:45 p.m., 21 August 1974; US Dept. of State [http://foia.state.gov/Search Colls/CollsSearch.asp].
US Congress 1975 94th Congress 1st Session, Committee Print, ‘Covert Actions in Chile, 1963-1973, Staff Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence Activities’, US Government Printing Office, Washington.
Secondary Sources
Asmussen, J. (2001) ‘Wir waren wie Brüder’. Zusammenleben und Konfliktentstehung in ethnisch gemischten Dörfern auf Zypern [‘We were like Brothers’. Co-existence and the Upcoming Conflict in Ethnical Mixed Villages in Cyprus]. Hamburg: Lit-Verlag.
Asmussen, J. (2004) ‘Early Conflicts between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot Communities in Cyprus’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 87-106.
Asmussen, J. (2006) ‘“Dark-skinned Cypriots will not be accepted”. Cypriots in the British Army (1939-1945)’, in Faustmann, H. and Peristianis, N. (eds), Britain in Cyprus. Colonialism and Post-Colonialism 1878-2006. Mannheim/Möhnsee: Bibliopolis, pp. 167-186.
Asmussen, J. (2008a) Cyprus at War: Diplomacy and Conflict During the 1974 Crisis. London: I.B. Tauris.
Asmussen, J. (2008b) ‘Poppies, Pistols and Intelligence: United States Policy towards Turkey in the 1970s’, in McGreevy, P. (ed.), Liberty and Justice: America and the Middle East, Proceedings of the Second International Conference sponsored by the Center for American Studies and Research at American University of Beirut. Beirut: American University of Beirut Press, pp. 226-240.
Bucheli, M. (2005) Bananas and Business: The United Fruit Company in Colombia: 1899-2000. New York: New York University Press.
Bryant, R. (2004) Imagining the Modern: The Cultures of Nationalism in Cyprus. London: I.B. Tauris.
Constandinos, A. (2009) America, Britain and the Cyprus Crisis of 1974: Calculated Conspiracy or Foreign Policy Failure? Central Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse.
Geoghallides, G.S. (1979) A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus 1918-1926. With a Survey of the Foundations of British Rule. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre.
Geoghallides, G.S. (1985) Cyprus and the Governorship of Sir Ronald Storrs: The Causes of the 1931 Crisis. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre.
Hitchens, C. (1997) Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger. London/New York: Verso.
Holland, R. (1998) Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 1954-1959. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kadritzke, N. and Wagner, W. (1976) Im Fadenkreuz der NATO. Ermittlungen am Beispiel Cypern [In NATO’s Crosshairs. Investigations in the Case of Cyprus]. Berlin: Rotbuch Verlag.
Kitromilides, P.M. (1977) ‘From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus’, in Attalides, M. (ed.), Cyprus Reviewed. Nicosia: Jus Cypri Association, pp. 35-70.
Kitromilides, P.M. and Couloumbis, T.A. (1976) ‘Ethnic Conflict in a Strategic Area: The Case of Cyprus’,in Said, A. and Simmons, L.R. (eds), Ethnicity in an International Context. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, pp. 167-202.
Lukach, H.C. and Jardine, D.J. (eds) (1913) The Handbook of Cyprus, 7th edition. London: E. Stanford.
Mallinson, W. (2005) Cyprus: A Modern History. London: I.B. Tauris.
O’Malley, B. and Craig, I. (1999) The Cyprus Conspiracy. America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion.London: I.B. Tauris.
Sherman, A. (1999) Zypern, Die Gefolterte Insel: Der griechisch-türkische Zypernkonflikt und seine Hintergründe [Cyprus, The Tortured Island: The Greek-Turkish Conflict and its Background]. Freiburg: Ahrimin Verlag.
Yennaris, C. (2003) From the East, Conflict and Partition in Cyprus. London/Bath: Elliot and Thompson.
Progress Report, Development and Expansion of the Cyprus Police Force, Chief of Staff, Office of Commissioner of Police Cyprus and Governor, 10 February 1956, MSS. Medit. s. 9.
Progress Report, Development and Expansion of the Cyprus Police Force, Chief of Staff, Office of Commissioner of Police Cyprus and Governor, 13 March 1956, MSS. Medit. s. 9.
B.J. Weston to A.F. John Reddaway, Administrative Secretary, 26 February 1957, Weston, Bertram John: Correspondence 1954-1959 with Colonial Secretary, MSS. Medit. s. 12.
Mediterranean Department, Colonial Office: The Turkish Community in Cyprus, Brief for Sir Hugh Foot, No. 7., July 1956, Foot papers - Additional MSS; MSS. Medit. s. 35; Box 1/Folder 1 1957 Registry Number 181/2.
The [UK] National Archives, Kew, Richmond, Surrey
CO 69/59 Administration Reports 1955 Part II; Annual Report on the Cyprus Police Force for the Year 1955 by G.H. Robins, MBE, Commissioner of Police, Cyprus.
CO 69/65 Cyprus Administration Reports 1958 Part 2; Annual Report on the Cyprus Police Force for the Year 1958 by John E.S. Brown Esq, OBE, Chief Constable of Cyprus. Nicosia 1959.
CO 69/68 Administration Reports 1960 Part 1; Annual Report on the Cyprus Gendarmerie Force for the Period 16 August 1960-31 December 1960 by Ahmed Niazi Esq, Commander, Cyprus Gendarmerie.
CO 926/416 Sabotage and Incidents in Cyprus 1955-1956; MIDEAST Main and War Office. MIDEAST Rear. Confidential, 12 January 1956.
CO 926/422 Confidential, Inter-Communal Strife in Cyprus, J.E. Galsworthy, 15 June 1956.
FCO 9/1897 ‘Phone conversation Kissinger/Callaghan’ A.A. Acland, note for the record, 22 July 1974.
FCO 9/1901 Callaghan to UKMIS Geneva, Tel No 310, 260714Z, 26 July 1974.
FCO 9/1901 Richard, UKMIS New York to FCO Tel No 868, 26 July 1974.
FCO 9/1914 Stephen Olver, British High Commissioner, Nicosia, to Callaghan, Diplomatic report No. 410/74 ‘The Coup against Makarios’, 2 December 1974.
FCO 9/1922 The Geneva Conference on Cyprus, July-August 1974, Records of Conversation, Document No. 67, Record of a telephone conversation between Callaghan and the United States Under-Secretary of State, Mr Sisco, at 17:20 on 11 August 1974.
PREM 16/19 Ministry of Defence to Secretary of State FCO, Re-Instalment of President Makarios by means of British military support, 17 July 1974.
WO 386/12 Fortnightly Intelligence Summery No 13/74 for the period 19 June-2 July 1974.
WO 386/21 Report by Commander of British Forces Near East on the Cyprus Emergency 15 July-16 August 1974, UK Eyes A – Secret, 15 May 1975.
WO 386/21 Annex C, Operation ABLAUT.
WO 386/21 Annex D, Operation PLATYPUS.
WO 386/21 JIC London to Paris (Sir John Hunt for Prime Minister), (191450Z JUL), 14:50, 19 July 1974.
WO 386/21 Olver to FCO, Tel No 230, 17 July 1974.
House of Commons
Report from the Select Committee on Cyprus, together with the proceedings of the Committee, minutes of evidence and appendices, Session 1975-1976, HMSO, London, 8 April 1976.
Nixon Presidential Materials, NARA, College Park, MD Contingency Study for Cyprus, April 1974. NSC Interdepartmental Group for Near East and South Asia,
Nixon Presidential Materials Staff, National Security Council Institutional (‘H’) Files, Meeting Files (1969-1974), Washington Special Action Group Meetings, WSAG Meetings Cyprus 7-18-74 to WSAG [Cyprus] 7-23-74, Box H-097.
Memorandum, Saunders to Kissinger, Where are we going on Cyprus?, 17 July 1974, Cyprus Vol. II, 1 July 1974, National Security Council Files, Country Files – Middle East, Box 592.
Memorandum. Brent Scowcroft to Nixon. Cyprus. Today’s WSAG Meeting, 18 July 1974, National Security Council Institutional Files (1969-1974), Washington Special Action Group Meetings, Box H-097.
STATE 103030 Boyatt to Tasca, State Department Telegram, 17 May 1974.
STATE 157127 Ingersoll to Ankara, 22:00, 19 July 1974, National Security Council Files, Country Files – Middle East, Turkey Vol. 4, January 1974, Box 634.
STATE 157969 Ingersoll to Ankara, 11:33, 20 July 1974, National Security Council Files, Country Files – Middle East, Turkey Vol. 4, January 1974, Box 634.
Telcon Callaghan/Kissinger, 10:15 p.m., 16 July 1974, Henry A. Kissinger Telephone Conversation Transcripts (Telcons). Chronological File. 1 June 1974 to 8 August 1974, Box 26.
Telcon Nixon/Kissinger, 4:30 p.m., 17 July 1974, Henry A. Kissinger Telephone Conversation Transcripts (Telcons). Chronological File. 1 June 1974 to 8 August 1974, Box 26.
Telcon, Kissinger/Nixon, 8:00 p.m., 19 July 1974, Henry A. Kissinger Telephone Conversation Transcripts (Telcons). Chronological File. 1 June 1974 to 8 August 1974, Box 26.
Telcon, Schlesinger/Kissinger; 8:15 p.m., 19 July 1974, Henry A. Kissinger Telephone Conversation Transcripts (Telcons). Chronological File. 1 June 1974 to 8 August 1974, Box 26.
Telecon Kissinger/McCloskey/Stabler, 12:45 p.m., 19 July 1974, Henry A. Kissinger Telephone Conversation Transcripts (Telcons). Chronological File. 1 June 1974 to 8 August 1974, Box 26.
Ford Library, Ann Arbor, MD Boyatt to Kissinger, Briefing Memorandum. Critique of the Substantial Handling of the Cyprus Crisis, 9 August 1974. Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Cyprus (1), Box 2.
Telecon, Ford/Kissinger, 3:40 p.m., 10 August 1974, Office of the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, Kissinger-Scowcroft Temporary Parallel File, Box A1.
STATE 175382 Kissinger to Ankara, Z110200, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams from SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
ANKARA 6412 Macomber to Kissinger, 110924Z, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
ANKARA 6414 Macomber to Kissinger, 111808Z, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams to SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
STATE 175402 Kissinger to Macomber, 111727Z, 11 August 1974, Turkey – State Department Telegrams from SECSTATE – NODIS (1), Presidential Country Files for the Middle East and South Asia, Country File – Turkey (15), Box 34.
Memorandum of conversation, Ford, Kissinger, Scowcroft, 9:00 a.m., 13 August 1974; National Security Adviser, Memoranda of Conversations, 1973-1977, 8 May 1974, Box 4.
FOIA, Electronic Reading Room, Kissinger Transcripts Telcon Cyrus Vance/Kissinger, 7:45 p.m., 21 August 1974; US Dept. of State [http://foia.state.gov/Search Colls/CollsSearch.asp].
US Congress 1975 94th Congress 1st Session, Committee Print, ‘Covert Actions in Chile, 1963-1973, Staff Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence Activities’, US Government Printing Office, Washington.
Secondary Sources
Asmussen, J. (2001) ‘Wir waren wie Brüder’. Zusammenleben und Konfliktentstehung in ethnisch gemischten Dörfern auf Zypern [‘We were like Brothers’. Co-existence and the Upcoming Conflict in Ethnical Mixed Villages in Cyprus]. Hamburg: Lit-Verlag.
Asmussen, J. (2004) ‘Early Conflicts between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot Communities in Cyprus’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 87-106.
Asmussen, J. (2006) ‘“Dark-skinned Cypriots will not be accepted”. Cypriots in the British Army (1939-1945)’, in Faustmann, H. and Peristianis, N. (eds), Britain in Cyprus. Colonialism and Post-Colonialism 1878-2006. Mannheim/Möhnsee: Bibliopolis, pp. 167-186.
Asmussen, J. (2008a) Cyprus at War: Diplomacy and Conflict During the 1974 Crisis. London: I.B. Tauris.
Asmussen, J. (2008b) ‘Poppies, Pistols and Intelligence: United States Policy towards Turkey in the 1970s’, in McGreevy, P. (ed.), Liberty and Justice: America and the Middle East, Proceedings of the Second International Conference sponsored by the Center for American Studies and Research at American University of Beirut. Beirut: American University of Beirut Press, pp. 226-240.
Bucheli, M. (2005) Bananas and Business: The United Fruit Company in Colombia: 1899-2000. New York: New York University Press.
Bryant, R. (2004) Imagining the Modern: The Cultures of Nationalism in Cyprus. London: I.B. Tauris.
Constandinos, A. (2009) America, Britain and the Cyprus Crisis of 1974: Calculated Conspiracy or Foreign Policy Failure? Central Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse.
Geoghallides, G.S. (1979) A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus 1918-1926. With a Survey of the Foundations of British Rule. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre.
Geoghallides, G.S. (1985) Cyprus and the Governorship of Sir Ronald Storrs: The Causes of the 1931 Crisis. Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre.
Hitchens, C. (1997) Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger. London/New York: Verso.
Holland, R. (1998) Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 1954-1959. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kadritzke, N. and Wagner, W. (1976) Im Fadenkreuz der NATO. Ermittlungen am Beispiel Cypern [In NATO’s Crosshairs. Investigations in the Case of Cyprus]. Berlin: Rotbuch Verlag.
Kitromilides, P.M. (1977) ‘From Coexistence to Confrontation: The Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict in Cyprus’, in Attalides, M. (ed.), Cyprus Reviewed. Nicosia: Jus Cypri Association, pp. 35-70.
Kitromilides, P.M. and Couloumbis, T.A. (1976) ‘Ethnic Conflict in a Strategic Area: The Case of Cyprus’,in Said, A. and Simmons, L.R. (eds), Ethnicity in an International Context. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, pp. 167-202.
Lukach, H.C. and Jardine, D.J. (eds) (1913) The Handbook of Cyprus, 7th edition. London: E. Stanford.
Mallinson, W. (2005) Cyprus: A Modern History. London: I.B. Tauris.
O’Malley, B. and Craig, I. (1999) The Cyprus Conspiracy. America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion.London: I.B. Tauris.
Sherman, A. (1999) Zypern, Die Gefolterte Insel: Der griechisch-türkische Zypernkonflikt und seine Hintergründe [Cyprus, The Tortured Island: The Greek-Turkish Conflict and its Background]. Freiburg: Ahrimin Verlag.
Yennaris, C. (2003) From the East, Conflict and Partition in Cyprus. London/Bath: Elliot and Thompson.
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“Conspiracy Theories and Cypriot History: The Comfort of Commonly Perceived Enemies”. 2017. Cyprus Review 23 (2): 127-45. https://cyprusreview.org/index.php/cr/article/view/159.