Diasporic Voices from the Peripheries Armenian Experiences on the Edges of Community in Cyprus and Lebanon
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Abstract
Post-genocide Armenian diasporic communities are historically structured around the same diaspora institutions which act as transmitters of traditional identity. Broadly speaking these are: the Churches, schools, the political parties and their offshoots (clubs, associations, media, youth groups, cultural groups etc). These transmitters effectively create and control the infrastructure and ‘public space’ of the diaspora community, espousing what is often in substance a prescriptive ‘Armenianness’. The linear, fixed versions of ‘Armenianness’ represented and perpetuated by the leaders and elites ‘from above’ tend to alienate various groups of people, whose voices are marginalised and not represented in the official, hegemonic history and identity of the diaspora or the community. This paper focusses on four distinct groups of Armenian Cypriot and Lebanese individuals (identified as the Dislocated, the Assimilated, the Outsider and the Disillusioned) and makes substantial use of ethnographic interviews in order to allow these authentic voices to be heard. The findings reveal that the voices from below or from the side-lines are gaining legitimacy and influence through dynamic dialectical encounters with the host state structures, the transnation and the homeland, being rooted and routed in alternative new spaces and possibilities carved out by the process of globalisation.
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Keywords
diaspora, Cyprus, Armenians, Lebanon, identity, community
References
Anthias, F. (2006) ‘Researching Society and Culture in Cyprus: Displacements, Hybridities and Dialogical Frameworks’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 176–193.
Anthias, F. (2013) ‘Moving Beyond the Janus Face of Integration and Diversity Discourses: Towards an Intersectional Framing’, The Sociological Review, an online version, 18 January 2013, before inclusion in an issue.
Argyrou, V. (1996) Tradition and Modernity in the Mediterranean: The Wedding as a Symbolic Struggle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Atamian, S. (1955) The Armenian Community – The Historical Development of a Social and Ideological Conflict. New York: Philosophical Library.
Bakalian, A. (1993) Armenian Americans: From Being to Feeling Armenian. New Brunswick/London: Transaction Publishers.
Bhabha, H.K. (1994) The Location of Culture. London/New York: Routledge.
Björklund, U. (1993) ‘Armenia Remembered and Remade: Evolving Issues in a Diaspora’, Ethnos, Vol. 58, pp. 335–360.
Brubaker, R. (1996) Nationalism Reframed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brubaker, R. (2005) ‘The “Diaspora” Diaspora’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1 (January), pp. 1–19.
Bryant, R. (2010) ‘The State of Cypriot Silences’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Fall), pp. 113–122.
Cockburn, C. (2004) The Line – Women, Partition and the Gender Order in Cyprus. London: Zed Books.
Cohen, R. (1997) Global Diasporas. London: UCL Press.
Constantinou, C.M. (2009) ‘Cyprus, Minority Politics and Surplus Ethnicity’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 361–372.
Demetriou, O. (2007) ‘To Cross or Not to Cross? Subjectivisation and the Absent State in Cyprus’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institutes, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 987–1006.
Demetriou, O. (forthcoming 2014) ‘“Struck by the Turks”: Reflections on the Armenian Experience of Displacement in Cyprus’, Special issue of Patterns of Prejudice, (Öktem, K. and Kasbarian, S. (eds)), Civil Society Rapprochement and High Politics Stalemate: Mapping the Future of Armenian–Turkish Relations
in the Context of the Wider Middle East.
Hadjipavlou-Trigeorgis, M. (2000) ‘The Role of Joint Narrative in Conflict Resolution: The Case of Cyprus’, in Yashin, M. (ed.), Step-Mothertongue: From Nationalism to Multiculturalism: Literatures of Cyprus, Greece and Turkey. Middlesex: Middlesex University Press, pp. 129–146.
Hadjipavlou, M. (2006) ‘No Permission to Cross: Cypriot Women’s Dialogue across the Divide’, Gender, Place and Culture, Vol. 13, No. 4 (August), pp. 329–351.
Ignatieff, M. (1999) The Warrior’s Honour: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscious. London: Vintage.
Kasbarian, S. (2006) ‘Rooted and Routed: The Contemporary Armenian Community in Cyprus and Lebanon’. Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London.
Kasbarian, S. (2009a) ‘Whose Space, Whose Interests? Clashes within Armenian Diasporic Civil Society’, Armenian Review, Vol. 51, No. 1–4 (Fall–Winter), pp. 81–109.
Kasbarian, S. (2009b) ‘The Armenian Community in Cyprus at the Beginning of the 21st Century: From Insecurity to Integration’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 175–191.
Knott, K. and McLoughlin, S. (eds) (2010) Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. London/New York: Zed Books.
Kouyoumdjian, Z. (2013) Lebanese Television Celebrity, Talk Show Host and Producer. ‘Meet Zaven Online’. Available at [http://www.zavenonline.com], accessed on 3 April 2013.
Kymlicka, W. (2002) ‘Multiculturalism and Minority Rights: West and East’, Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe (JEMIE), Iss. 4, pp. 1–25.
Libaridian, G.J. (1999) The Challenge of Statehood. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blue Crane Books.
Lijphart, A. (1977) Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Levy, A. and Weingrod, A. (eds) (2005) Homelands and Diasporas – Holy Lands and Other Places. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Loizos, P. (1998) ‘How Might Turkish and Greek Cypriots See Each Other More Clearly?’, in Calotychos, V. (ed.), Cyprus and its People: Nation, Identity and Experience in an Unimaginable Community 1955–1997. Oxford/Colorado: Westview Press, pp. 35–52.
Lomsky-Feder, E. and Rapoport, T. (2005) ‘Visit, Separation and Deconstructing Nostalgia: Russian Students Travel to their old Home’, in Levy, A. and Weingrod, A. (eds), Homelands and Diasporas –Holy Lands and Other Places. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, chapter 12, pp. 296–320.
Mackey, S. (1991) Lebanon – Death of a Nation. New York: Doubleday.
Makdisi, U. (2000) The Culture of Sectarianism – Community, History and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. Berkeley, Los Angeles/London: University of California Press.
Mavratsas, C.V. (1997) ‘The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974–1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4 (October), pp. 726–727.
Mavratsas, C.V. (1999) ‘National Identity and Consciousness in Everyday Life: Towards a Sociology of Knowledge of Greek-Cypriot Nationalism’, Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 91–104.
Migliorino, N. (2008) (Re)Constructing Armenia in Lebanon and Syria: Ethno-Cultural Diversity and the State in the Aftermath of a Refugee Crisis. New York: Berghahn Books.
Navaro-Yashin, Y. (2006) ‘De-ethnicising the ethnography of Cyprus: Political and Social Conflict between Turkish Cypriots and Settlers from Turkey’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 84–99.
Panossian, R. (1998) ‘Between Ambivalence and Intrusion: Politics and Identity in Armenia–Diaspora Relations’, Diaspora, Vol. 7, No. 2, (Fall), pp. 149–196.
Panossian, R. (2006) The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. New York: Columbia University Press.
Papadakis, Y. (1997) ‘Greek Cypriot Narratives of History and Collective Identity: Nationalism as a Contested Process’, American Ethnologist, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 149–165.
Papadakis, Y. (2003) ‘Nation, Narrative and Commemoration: Political Ritual in Divided Cyprus’, History and Anthropology, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 253–270.
Papadakis, Y. (2006) ‘Disclosure and Censorship in Divided Cyprus: Toward an Anthropology of Ethnic Autism’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 66–83.
Pattie, S.P. (1997) Faith in History – Armenians Rebuilding Community. Washington/London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Pattie, S.P. (2009) ‘New Life in an Old Community’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastleupon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 160–174.
Peristianis, N. (2006) ‘Cypriot Nationalism, Dual Identity and Politics’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 100–120.
Safran, W. (1991) ‘Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return’, Diaspora, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 83–99.
Salibi, K. (1988) A House of Many Mansions – The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. London: I.B. Tauris and Co.
Sanjian, A. (2001) ‘Torn between the “Obligation” of Preserving a Distinct Identity and the “Advantages” of Assimilation: The Armenian Experience in the Modern Arab World’, Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Spring/Summer) pp. 149–179.
Schahgaldian, N.B. (1979) ‘The Political Integration of an Immigrant Community into a Composite Society: The Armenians in Lebanon, 1920–1974’. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Columbia University, New York.
Sheffer, G. (ed.) (1986) Modern Diasporas in International Politics. London: Croom Helm.
Spyrou, S. (2002) ‘Images of “the Other”: “the Turk” in Greek Cypriot Children’s Imagination’, Race, Ethnicity and Education, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 255–272.
Suny, R.G. (1993) Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Talai, V.A. (1989) Armenians in London. Manchester/New York: Manchester University Press.
Tölölyan, K. (1996) ‘Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transnational Moment’, Diaspora, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 3–36.
Tölölyan, K. (2000) ‘Elites and Institutions in the Armenian Transnation’, Diaspora, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Spring), pp. 107–135.
Trimikliniotis, N. (2004) ‘Mapping Discriminatory Landscapes in Cyprus: Ethnic Discrimination in a Divided Education System’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Spring), pp. 53–86.
Trimikliniotis, N. and Demetriou, C. (2012) ‘Cyprus’, chapter 11, in Zapata-Barrero, R. and Triandafyllidou, A. (eds), Addressing Tolerance and Diversity Discourse in Europe. CIDOB, Barcelona centre for International Affairs, pp. 275–293.
Varnava, A. (2009) ‘The Minorities of Cyprus in the History of Cyprus Textbook for Lyceum Students: A Critique’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 299–313.
Varnava, A. (2010) ‘The State of Cypriot Minorities: Cultural Diversity, Internal–Exclusion and the Cyprus “Problem”’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Fall), pp. 205–218.
Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds) (2009) The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Anthias, F. (2013) ‘Moving Beyond the Janus Face of Integration and Diversity Discourses: Towards an Intersectional Framing’, The Sociological Review, an online version, 18 January 2013, before inclusion in an issue.
Argyrou, V. (1996) Tradition and Modernity in the Mediterranean: The Wedding as a Symbolic Struggle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Atamian, S. (1955) The Armenian Community – The Historical Development of a Social and Ideological Conflict. New York: Philosophical Library.
Bakalian, A. (1993) Armenian Americans: From Being to Feeling Armenian. New Brunswick/London: Transaction Publishers.
Bhabha, H.K. (1994) The Location of Culture. London/New York: Routledge.
Björklund, U. (1993) ‘Armenia Remembered and Remade: Evolving Issues in a Diaspora’, Ethnos, Vol. 58, pp. 335–360.
Brubaker, R. (1996) Nationalism Reframed. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brubaker, R. (2005) ‘The “Diaspora” Diaspora’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1 (January), pp. 1–19.
Bryant, R. (2010) ‘The State of Cypriot Silences’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Fall), pp. 113–122.
Cockburn, C. (2004) The Line – Women, Partition and the Gender Order in Cyprus. London: Zed Books.
Cohen, R. (1997) Global Diasporas. London: UCL Press.
Constantinou, C.M. (2009) ‘Cyprus, Minority Politics and Surplus Ethnicity’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 361–372.
Demetriou, O. (2007) ‘To Cross or Not to Cross? Subjectivisation and the Absent State in Cyprus’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institutes, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 987–1006.
Demetriou, O. (forthcoming 2014) ‘“Struck by the Turks”: Reflections on the Armenian Experience of Displacement in Cyprus’, Special issue of Patterns of Prejudice, (Öktem, K. and Kasbarian, S. (eds)), Civil Society Rapprochement and High Politics Stalemate: Mapping the Future of Armenian–Turkish Relations
in the Context of the Wider Middle East.
Hadjipavlou-Trigeorgis, M. (2000) ‘The Role of Joint Narrative in Conflict Resolution: The Case of Cyprus’, in Yashin, M. (ed.), Step-Mothertongue: From Nationalism to Multiculturalism: Literatures of Cyprus, Greece and Turkey. Middlesex: Middlesex University Press, pp. 129–146.
Hadjipavlou, M. (2006) ‘No Permission to Cross: Cypriot Women’s Dialogue across the Divide’, Gender, Place and Culture, Vol. 13, No. 4 (August), pp. 329–351.
Ignatieff, M. (1999) The Warrior’s Honour: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscious. London: Vintage.
Kasbarian, S. (2006) ‘Rooted and Routed: The Contemporary Armenian Community in Cyprus and Lebanon’. Unpublished PhD thesis, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London.
Kasbarian, S. (2009a) ‘Whose Space, Whose Interests? Clashes within Armenian Diasporic Civil Society’, Armenian Review, Vol. 51, No. 1–4 (Fall–Winter), pp. 81–109.
Kasbarian, S. (2009b) ‘The Armenian Community in Cyprus at the Beginning of the 21st Century: From Insecurity to Integration’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 175–191.
Knott, K. and McLoughlin, S. (eds) (2010) Diasporas – Concepts, Intersections, Identities. London/New York: Zed Books.
Kouyoumdjian, Z. (2013) Lebanese Television Celebrity, Talk Show Host and Producer. ‘Meet Zaven Online’. Available at [http://www.zavenonline.com], accessed on 3 April 2013.
Kymlicka, W. (2002) ‘Multiculturalism and Minority Rights: West and East’, Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe (JEMIE), Iss. 4, pp. 1–25.
Libaridian, G.J. (1999) The Challenge of Statehood. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blue Crane Books.
Lijphart, A. (1977) Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Levy, A. and Weingrod, A. (eds) (2005) Homelands and Diasporas – Holy Lands and Other Places. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Loizos, P. (1998) ‘How Might Turkish and Greek Cypriots See Each Other More Clearly?’, in Calotychos, V. (ed.), Cyprus and its People: Nation, Identity and Experience in an Unimaginable Community 1955–1997. Oxford/Colorado: Westview Press, pp. 35–52.
Lomsky-Feder, E. and Rapoport, T. (2005) ‘Visit, Separation and Deconstructing Nostalgia: Russian Students Travel to their old Home’, in Levy, A. and Weingrod, A. (eds), Homelands and Diasporas –Holy Lands and Other Places. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, chapter 12, pp. 296–320.
Mackey, S. (1991) Lebanon – Death of a Nation. New York: Doubleday.
Makdisi, U. (2000) The Culture of Sectarianism – Community, History and Violence in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon. Berkeley, Los Angeles/London: University of California Press.
Mavratsas, C.V. (1997) ‘The Ideological Contest between Greek-Cypriot Nationalism and Cypriotism 1974–1995: Politics, Social Memory and Identity’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4 (October), pp. 726–727.
Mavratsas, C.V. (1999) ‘National Identity and Consciousness in Everyday Life: Towards a Sociology of Knowledge of Greek-Cypriot Nationalism’, Nations and Nationalism, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 91–104.
Migliorino, N. (2008) (Re)Constructing Armenia in Lebanon and Syria: Ethno-Cultural Diversity and the State in the Aftermath of a Refugee Crisis. New York: Berghahn Books.
Navaro-Yashin, Y. (2006) ‘De-ethnicising the ethnography of Cyprus: Political and Social Conflict between Turkish Cypriots and Settlers from Turkey’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 84–99.
Panossian, R. (1998) ‘Between Ambivalence and Intrusion: Politics and Identity in Armenia–Diaspora Relations’, Diaspora, Vol. 7, No. 2, (Fall), pp. 149–196.
Panossian, R. (2006) The Armenians: From Kings and Priests to Merchants and Commissars. New York: Columbia University Press.
Papadakis, Y. (1997) ‘Greek Cypriot Narratives of History and Collective Identity: Nationalism as a Contested Process’, American Ethnologist, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 149–165.
Papadakis, Y. (2003) ‘Nation, Narrative and Commemoration: Political Ritual in Divided Cyprus’, History and Anthropology, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 253–270.
Papadakis, Y. (2006) ‘Disclosure and Censorship in Divided Cyprus: Toward an Anthropology of Ethnic Autism’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 66–83.
Pattie, S.P. (1997) Faith in History – Armenians Rebuilding Community. Washington/London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Pattie, S.P. (2009) ‘New Life in an Old Community’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastleupon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 160–174.
Peristianis, N. (2006) ‘Cypriot Nationalism, Dual Identity and Politics’, in Papadakis, Y., Peristianis, N. and Welz, G. (eds), Divided Cyprus: Modernity, History and an Island in Conflict. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 100–120.
Safran, W. (1991) ‘Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return’, Diaspora, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 83–99.
Salibi, K. (1988) A House of Many Mansions – The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. London: I.B. Tauris and Co.
Sanjian, A. (2001) ‘Torn between the “Obligation” of Preserving a Distinct Identity and the “Advantages” of Assimilation: The Armenian Experience in the Modern Arab World’, Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 (Spring/Summer) pp. 149–179.
Schahgaldian, N.B. (1979) ‘The Political Integration of an Immigrant Community into a Composite Society: The Armenians in Lebanon, 1920–1974’. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Columbia University, New York.
Sheffer, G. (ed.) (1986) Modern Diasporas in International Politics. London: Croom Helm.
Spyrou, S. (2002) ‘Images of “the Other”: “the Turk” in Greek Cypriot Children’s Imagination’, Race, Ethnicity and Education, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 255–272.
Suny, R.G. (1993) Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Talai, V.A. (1989) Armenians in London. Manchester/New York: Manchester University Press.
Tölölyan, K. (1996) ‘Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transnational Moment’, Diaspora, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 3–36.
Tölölyan, K. (2000) ‘Elites and Institutions in the Armenian Transnation’, Diaspora, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Spring), pp. 107–135.
Trimikliniotis, N. (2004) ‘Mapping Discriminatory Landscapes in Cyprus: Ethnic Discrimination in a Divided Education System’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Spring), pp. 53–86.
Trimikliniotis, N. and Demetriou, C. (2012) ‘Cyprus’, chapter 11, in Zapata-Barrero, R. and Triandafyllidou, A. (eds), Addressing Tolerance and Diversity Discourse in Europe. CIDOB, Barcelona centre for International Affairs, pp. 275–293.
Varnava, A. (2009) ‘The Minorities of Cyprus in the History of Cyprus Textbook for Lyceum Students: A Critique’, in Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds), The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 299–313.
Varnava, A. (2010) ‘The State of Cypriot Minorities: Cultural Diversity, Internal–Exclusion and the Cyprus “Problem”’, The Cyprus Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Fall), pp. 205–218.
Varnava, A., Koureas, N. and Elia, M. (eds) (2009) The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal–Exclusion. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
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“Diasporic Voices from the Peripheries: Armenian Experiences on the Edges of Community in Cyprus and Lebanon”. 2017. Cyprus Review 25 (1): 81-110. https://cyprusreview.org/index.php/cr/article/view/122.